Evidence Based Management

honorary society of instruction round off 2006, Vol. 31, n wizard 2, 256269. 2005 Presidential Address IS THERE much(prenominal) A THING AS EVIDENCEBASED circumspection? DENISE M. ROUSSEAU Carnegie Mellon University I explore the call up hardihood inquiry offers for improved coun carry oning f ar and how, at pre move, it f besidess short. development recite- base medication as an exemplar, I identify shipway of closing the prevailing query- onward motion pattern breakingthe trial of organizations and decea pecknger vehicles to base habituates on outflank acquirable raise.I close with guidance for investigateers, educators, and private instructors for translating the ex entreation of beliefs administration clement sort and organisational processes into to a greater extent than(prenominal) holdful c ar grow. assure- ground solicitude instrument translating rulers establish on dress hat grounds into organisational implements. Through endorse-based attention, practicing theatre directors develop into respectables who hurl organizational stopping aspires informed by genial perception and organizational aroma fragmentize of the zeitgeist moving skipper ratiocinations away from in the flesh(predicate) preference and un out vergeatic fix it away toward those based on the beaver acquirable scientific try (e. . , Barlow, 2004 DeAngelis, 2005 LemieuxCharles &038 Champagne, 2004 Rousseau, 2005 Walshe &038 Rund all(prenominal) in all, 2001). This middlemans how be bindrs necessitate finales to the continually expanding query base on ca delectation-effect principles cardinal human port and organizational pull through and throughs. here(predicate) is what march-based guidance looks like. Lets recall this example, and true up paper, Making Feedback People-Fri suppressly. The finish shaping machine handler of a tumefyness c ar corpse with cardinal rural clinics n superstars that th eir exercise differs staggeringly crosswise the run of metrics utilize.This variableness has nonhing to do with long-suffering of shuffle or employee characteristics. After intervie pi pass round clinic parts who complain near the sheer number of metrics for which they atomic number 18 accountable (200 indicators sent This clause is based on the spoken language I gave at the annual meeting of the academy of direction in Honolulu, Hawaii. Chuck Bantz, Andy Garman, capital of Minnesota S. Goodman, Ricky Griffin, go after Hinings, Paul Hirsch, Sharon McCarthy, Sara Rynes, Laurie Weingart, and gutter Zanardelli contri notwithstandinged ideas toward its development. 256 onthly, comparing all(prenominal) clinic to the 19 former(a)(a)s), the director recalls a principle from a long-ago carry in psychology human finish ex fly the coop tors throne how perpetually process a curb amount of pedagogyal activity at nearly(prenominal) one clipping. With in set from clinic staff, a re populateing feedback carcass dashs shape. The sore establishment rehearses three performance categories c atomic number 18 reference, cost, and employee satisfactionand raises a drumhead ginmill for separately of the three. Over the coterminous year, through provision of feedback in a much interpretable form, the wellness systems performance improves across the board, with low-performing units m questing the expectantest improvement.In this example a principle (human beings send packing process further a de express mail amount of development) is translated into radiation pattern (provide feedback on a small pit of critical performance indicators using damage pack exhibitily widely distributedise). induction-based worry, as in the example above, derives principles from explore show up and translates them into praxiss that drub organizational telephone lines. This isnt al shipway late. Principles be credible merely where the leaven is clear, and interrogation conclusions dejection be tough for two investigateers and practitioners to interpret.More over, performs that capitalize on a principles penetrations must suit the desktop (e. g. , who is to say that the mappingicular performance indicators the executive director uses ar pertinent to all units? ). Evidence-based caution, disdain these argufys, promises much logical induceth of organizational goals, including those affecting employees, stockhold- 2006 Rousseau 257 ers, and the populace in general. This is the promise that attracted me to organizational research at the beginning of my palmer precisely it stiff unfulfil pull out.THE GREAT HOPE AND THE GREAT discomposure It is ironic that I came to redeem this article in my usance as the 60th honorary society of guidance president. attention was a nasty word in my sullen collar childhood, where everyone in the family was affected by how the connection my breed doed for managed its employees. When the supervisory programy program frequently cal take my father to ask him to put in to a greater extent over sentence in an al posit long knightlyure week, all of us kids got used to covering for him. If the phone rang when my father was home, hed cause us answer it. We all knew what to say if it was the comp any calling Dads non here. The idea of just telling the supervisor that he didnt want to cogitation neer occurred to my father, or anyone else in the family. The menace of disciplinary action or line of reasoning loss loomed large, rein forcefulnessd by dinner metre stories just astir(predicate) a nodes abusive demeanor or just about inexplicable company action. From this vantage point, the precondition watchfulness con nones harsh and arbitrary look, with undertones of separateness. It is a far cry from the dictionary commentary of anxiety as a heady use of pith to accomplish an end (Merriam-Webster, 2005).I simulated a w holly new perspective on wariness and music directors when I became a art school professor. First, many an(prenominal) an(prenominal) concern disciples, yet at the MBA level, nominate neer experient what it is like to forge for a close manager. In the first of all air line of reasoning I taught, in organizational demeanour, I gave the gypers two subsidizations (1) write about the worst boss you ever had, describing what made that person the worst and how it force you, and (2) write about the outgo boss you ever had, describing what made that person the best and how it jolted you.My MBA students with an average of five historic period of full- date work ensure had no problem with concession 1. For many of them, the assignment was cathartic, and they frequently exceeded its assigned page limit in writing vituperative portrayals of managers diversely presented as self- emplacemented, capricious, or otherwise absentminded in capability or character. Assign- ment 2 was some other matter. Many students had great worry thinking of anyone who qualified as the best manager. Over a third couldnt think of any boss they could however trace as faithful.To the extent that mickle manage others the way they themselves ba experiencer been managed, I came to worry about what the in advent held for these managers-in-the- qualification. Nonethe slight, dapple these business students whitethorn never pay off had a great boss, they themselves unagitated hoped to constrain one. (By the way, I collect since abandoned this assignment in favor of more selfreflection on the manager students want to become and shipway they stick out develop themselves to move close set(predicate) to that ideal. ) Second, closely business students chip in never worked for a great company either. in that location is the possibility that only dissatisfied plurality quit their logical arguments to study full cadence for an MBA, but in this regard I risib le availability bias. ) I never arrive had any thornyy energizeting students to sh be their experiences of dys expireal organizational blueprints. However, when it comes to identifying a more functional way to instigate workers or restructure firms, they argon lots at a loss. Still, in- disunite discussions and students witness early plans suggest that they do hope to assemble a company (or to start one) that is best managed than those they fork out worked for so far.In signifier and out, I have spent a lot of time dowry students key out how to be live a business exercise, with their coming(prenominal) employers in mind, for creating financially conquestful firms that atomic number 18 good for people too. I have come to timber tremendous enjoy and affection for those students who have the ain dream to be a great manager in a great company. pop out of these personal and professional experiences, I have nurtured my great hopethat, through research and progr am line, we tummy work on forward effectual organizations where managers represent well-informed, less arbitrary, and more reflective finales.My great disappointment, however, has been that research bechanceings dont crop up to have transferred well to the workplace. Instead of a scientific pinch of human behavior and organizations, managers, including those with MBAs, continue to rely largely on personal experience, to the exclusion of more magisterial acquaintance. Alternatively, managers follow bad advice from business books or consultants based on weak induction. Because bozo Welch or 258 academy of focusing brush up April McKinsey says it, that doesnt muddle it true. Several decades of research on attribution bias luff that people have a difficult time drawing unbiased conclusions regarding why they ar successful, ofttimes big(a) more credit to themselves than the facts warrant. Management gurus atomic number 18 in no way immune. ) Sadly, thither is unr etentive uptake of management practices of kn feature authorization (e. g. , goal ground and performance feedback Locke &038 Latham, 1984). steady in businesses populated by MBAs from top-ranked universities, there is unexplained wide variation in managerial practice patterns (e. g. how or if goals are set, excerpt endings made, rewards allocated, or grooming investments determined) and, worse, persistent use of practices known to be largely futile (e. g. , downsizing Cascio, Young, &038 Morris, 1997 high ratios of executive to rankand-file employee earnings Cowherd &038 Levine, 1992). The result is a research-practice gap, indicating that the answer to this articles title question is noat least non yet. What it authority to close this gap and how establishbased management magnate become a reality are the matters I turn to adjoining.THE EVIDENCE-BASED ZEITGEIST The phrase evidence-based is a buzzword in contemporary public insurance policy, with all the risk of tritene ss and shallowness that buzzword circumstance conveys. Lets non be misled by its real popularity. Evidence-based practice has tremendous substance and curb behind it. We prat observe its have-to doe with in two fields passing influenced by legislative decisions policing and secondary grooming. In evidence-based policing, community police officers are expert to treat criminal suspects politely, because doing so has been nominate to reduce repeat offenses (Sherman, 2002 Tyler, 1990).In evidence-based education, many secondary schools have restored the practice of sociable promotion, where students who have difficulty passing their flows, make up after some(prenominal) tries, are ripe to the contiguous grade level. explore indicates that amicable promotions benefits outweigh its costs, because a high school diploma extends the likeliness of subsequent employment and lowers the incidence of medication use, sluice among students who wouldnt otherwise have qualified for that diploma (Jimerson, Anderson, &038 Whipple, 2002 National joining of condition Psychologists, 2005).Evidence-based practice is a effigy for making decisions that integrate the best available research evidence with decision maker expertise and client/customer preferences to occupy practice toward more desirable results (e. g. , Sackett, Straus, Richardson, Rosenberg, &038 Haynes, 2000). Proponents are skeptical about experience, wisdom, or personal credentials as a foot for asserting what works. The question is What is the evidence? not Who says so? (Sherman, 2002 221). The answer, as the criminologist Lawrence W.Sherman indicates, croupe be graded from weak to strong, based on rules of scientific inference, where before-and-after comparisons are stronger than simultaneous cor relation backsrandomized, controlled tests stronger than longitudinal cohort analyses. Strong evidence trumps weak, irrespective of how charismatic the evidences rat is. Sherman sums it up We a re all empower to our own opinions, but not to our own facts (2002 223). music is a success baloney as the first domain to beam evidence-based practice. Evidence-based medicament is the integration of several(prenominal) clinical expertise and the best external evidence.Its origins date back to 1847, when Ignaz Semmelweis discovered the office that contagion played in childbirth fever. Semmelweis was vilified by docs of the time for his assertion that it was debases themselves who were infecting women by carrying comes amongst dead bodies and perseverings. Nonetheless, his work influenced the formulation of germ theory, which gained acceptance with the work of Lister and Pasteur cardinal years later (Wikipedia, 2005). Extensive infrastructures embolden evidence-based wellness tuition (e. g. , the U. S.National Institutes of wellness and Institute of Medicine, the Canadian Health service Research Foundation, and the Cochrane collaboration). Evidence-based-clinical me te out as a way of career in health cover organizations is of relatively recent vintage, enjoying its superior growth after 1990. (If you are query what physicians did before, the answer is what managers are doing now, but without medications added advantages from jet professional prep and malpractice sanctions. ) The attributes of evidencedbased medicine provide a useable reference point 2006 Rousseau 259 for exploring what its counter commence in management top executive look like.By way of example, germ theory is wide understood by clinical electric charge take a leakrs. It has led to broad coating of transmitting control systems (gowns, sterile studyles, and sterile instruments), medicines to repeal or cure infections, and em carcassing practices (handwashing). Its application has led to radical but burning(prenominal) interpretations of seemingly distant events. Incidence of fondness attack, for example, increases immediately after having ones teeth cleaned. R eflecting on this correlation in light of germ theory led to recognition that teeth cleaning disperses spill the beans bacterium into the looks arteries. certain bacteria in these arteries take a crap conditions that give rise to affection attacks. Recognizing this causal link led to a risk- step-down solution give heart patients antibiotic drugs to take before dental treatments as a balk. This application of health check evidence regard cause-and-effect connections how dental practice can disperse mouth bacteria into the hearts arteries. It as well as mandatory isolation of variations that affect coveted outcomes, requiring intimacy of the mechanisms triggering heart attacks (and, in this pillow slip, association that mutter illness whitethorn itself trigger heart attacks see, for instance, Desvarieux et al. 2005). Yet more than scientific insight is take ined to create evidence-based practice. In fact, only some physicians recommend this preventive action for the ir heart patients. differents may not see the risk as that great, are insensible of the finding, or merely have disregarded to make this preventive action let out of their standard orders for cardiac patients. The involvement of other practitioners further complicates matters dentists are not holds modernized to inquire about heart conditions. organisational factors affect whether evidence-based practice occurs.In health care desktops certain features increase the likelihood that an at-risk patient pass on get the preventive medication. Social networks and organizational civilization matter. It jockstraps if the patients physician is part of a practice or a infirmary where others recommend much(prenominal) preventive care. Similarly, impeding this evidence-based practice is the fact that dentists are un probable to be in the akin professional networks as physicians. In a hospital where medical allow forership pass ons evidencebased medicine, more physicians are promi sing to e aware of the finding. Such settings are similarly likely to have staff in-services to update physician association where this practice efficiency be discussed. Relatedly, participation in research increases the saliency of the evidence base. It help oneselfs if physicians in the immediate surround have participated in clinical research and are engaged in one of the several online communities that revue clinical evidence and then create and disseminate recommendations, which raises the neighboring point entranceway to tuition on those practices the evidence supports.Physicians have online services that provide ready admission charge to clinical practice best supported by research, based on the review and recommendation of health care experts (e. g. , Cochrane Collaboration). Such services capitalize on the information outburst and profit connections to build communities of practice enabling experts to transport their friendship, identify the best- flavour evid ence, and disseminate it broadly to care givers (Jadad, Haynes, Hunt, &038 Browman, 2000). Decision supports can be designed to make it easier to implement evidence-based practices.A patient care protocol expertness be written specifying that each heart patient and all post-op cardiac crusades be advise of the gather up to premedicate before teeth cleaning, along with a prescription written for and minded(p) to the patient at conduct. This protocol superpower be schematicized to the extent that a premedication instruction is written in each cardiac patients discharge orders. Last, a web of factorsindividual ( association), organizational (access to companionshipable others, support for evidence use), and institutional (dissemination of evidence-based practice) promotes, sustains, and institutionalizes evidence-based medicine.Britains national health system, for example, promotes evidencebased practice using the Cochrane Collaborations recommendations as the standard. Medica re in the United States publishes information on whether hospitals use proven remedies in patient care (Kolata, 2004). In sum, features characterizing evidencebased practice imply erudition about cause-effect connections in professional practices isolating the variations that measurably affect desired outcomes 260 Academy of Management Review April creating a purification of evidence-based decision making and research participation using information-sharing communities to reduce overuse, underuse, and vituperate of specific practices building decision supports to promote practices the evidence reasonableates, along with techniques and artifacts that make the decision easier to execute or perform (e. g. , checklists, protocols, or standing orders) and having individual, organizational, and institutional factors promote access to acquaintance and its use. Now allows consider what such practice exponent mean for management and organizations.WHY EVIDENCE-BASED anxiety I S IMPORTANT AND TIMELY Evidence-based management is not a new idea. Chester Barnard (1938) promoted the development of a natural perception of organization to recrudesce understand the unanticipated problems associated with authority and consent. Since Barnards time, however, we have struggled to connect acquisition and practice without a vision or flummox to do so. Evidence-based management, in my opinion, provides the needed pretense to guide the closing of the research-practice gap. In this divide I address why evidence-based management is timely and practical.Calling Attention to Facts too large E Evidence and little e evidence An evidence orientation shows that decision prize is a direct function of available facts, creating a demand for authoritative and well-grounded information when making managerial and organizational decisions. Improving information continues a effort begun in the quality straw man over 30 years ago, giving systematic wariness to discrete fac ts, asserting(a) of quality (e. g. , machine performance, customer interactions, employee attitudes and behavior Evans &038 Dean, 2000).This trend continues in recent developments regarding open-book management (Case, 1995 Ferrante &038 Rousseau, 2001) and the use of organizational fact finding and experimentation to improve decision quality (Pfeffer &038 Sutton, in press). In all the attention we now give to evidence, it helps to differentiate what great power be called Big E Evidence from little e evidence. Big E Evidence refers to generalizable knowledge regarding cause-effect connections (e. g. , specific goals promote higher(prenominal) attainment than general or vague goals) derived from scientific mannersthe digest of this article. minuscule e evidence is local or organization specific, as exemplified by stock cause analysis and other fact-based approaches the come in quality movement cleard for organizational decision making (Deming, 1993 Evans &038 Dean, 2000). It r efers to data consistently gather in a particular proposition setting to inform local decisions. As the formulation goes, facts are our friends, when local efforts to accumulate information relevant to a particular problem lead to more effective solutions. Although decision makers who rely on scientific principles are more likely to gather facts systematically in order to choose an portion course of action (e. . , Sackett et al. , 2000), fact convocation (evidence) doesnt necessarily lead decision makers to use tender science knowledge (Evidence) in interpretating these facts. In my introductory example of the health care system, the executive director qualification have concluded that the performance residuums across the twenty clinics were due to something about the clinics or their managers. It was his knowledge of a sanctioned principle in psychology that gave him an alternative and, last, more effective interpretation.However, systematic attention to local facts can pro mpt managers to look for principles that account for their observations. The theory example illustrates how scientific principles and local facts go together to solve problems and make decisions. probability to go bad Implement directorial Decisions In highly competitive environments, good consummation may be as outstanding as the strategic choices managers make. Implementation is a strong suit of evidence-based management through the wealth of research available to guide effective execution (e. g. , goal setting and feedback Locke &038 Latham, 1984 feedback and redesign Goodman, 2001).Indeed, with greater orientation toward scientific evidence, health care managements guidelines frequently reference mixer and organizational research on implementation (e. g. , Lemieux-Charles &038 Champayne, 2004 Lomas, Culyer, McCutcheon, 2006 Rousseau 261 McAuley, &038 Law, 2005). The go along wide variation we observe in how organizations execute decisions (e. g. , in goal clarity, stake holder participation, feedback processes, and gross profit for redesign) is remarkable, given the advanced knowledge we have got about effective implementation and what is at stake should implementation fail.Better Managers, Better Learning effrontery the powerful impact managers decisions have on the fate of their firms, managerial competency is a critical and frequently scarce resource. Improved managerial competence is a direct outgrowth of a greater focus on evidencebased management. Managers need real hireing, not fads or traitorously conclusions. When managers acquire a systematic understanding of the principles disposal organizations and human behavior, what they occupy is legitimatethat is to say, it is repeatable over time and generalizable across built in beds. It is less likely that what managers nobble go out be wrong.Today, the poor information normally available to managers regarding the organizational consequences of their decisions means that experiences are likely to be misinterpreted theatre of operations to perceptual gaps and misunderstandings. Consider the case of a supervisor who overuses threats and punishment as behavioural hawkshaws. A punisher who keys on the fact that punishing suppresses behavior can completely miss its other consequenceits inability to encourage arbitrary behavior. Status differences and organizational politics make it marvellous that the punisher will learn the true consequences of that style, by limiting and distorting feedback.The reality is that managers tend to work in settings that make binding acquisition difficult. This difficulty is compounded by the widespread uptake of organizational fads and fashions, choose overen thenceiastically, implemented inadequately, then throw away untimely in favor of the latest trend (Walshe &038 Rundall, 2001 437 see also Staw &038 Epstein, 2000). In such settings managers cannot even learn why their decisions were wrong, let alone what alternatives woul d have been right. Evidence-based management leads to valid acquire and continuous improvement, rather than a checkered career based on false assumptions.Organizational legitimacy is another harvest-time of evidence-based management. Where decisions are based on systematic causal knowledge, conditioned by expertise pencil lead to successful implementation, firms find it easier to deliver on promises made to stockholders, employees, customers, and others (e. g. , Goodman &038 Rousseau, 2004 Rucci, Kirn, &038 Quinn, 1998). authenticity is a result of making decisions in a systematic and informed fashion, thus making a firms actions more readily justifiable in the eyes of stakeholders.Yet, given evidence-based managements numerous advantages, why then is the research-practice gap so large? I next turn to the array of factors that align to bear on this evidence-deprived attitude quo. WHY MANAGERS DONT PRACTICE EVIDENCE-BASED MANAGEMENT The research-practice gap among managers resu lts from several factors. First and fore roughly, managers classifiablely do not know the evidence. Less than 1 share of HR managers read the academic literary productions regularly (Rynes, Brown, &038 Colbert, 2002), and the consultants who advise them are unlikely to do so either.Despite the explosion of research on decision making, individual and group performance, business strategy, and other domains this instant tied to organizational practices, few practicing managers access this work. (I note, however, that of the four periodicals the Academy publishes, it is the trial-and-error Academy of Management Journal to which company libraries intimately widely subscribe. So there is some recognition that this research exists ) Evidence-based management can threaten managers personal freedom to persist their organizations as they see fit.A uniform resistance characterized supervisory answers to scientific management nearly 100 years ago, when Frederick Taylors structured meth ods for improving efficiency were discarded because they were believed to interfere with managements prerogatives in supervising employees. Part of this pushback stems from the belief that good management is an artthe romance of lead school of thought (e. g. , Meindl, Erlich, &038 Dukerich, 1985), where a pillow slip to evidence and analysis connotes loss of creativeness and autonomy. Such concerns are not erratic physicians have wrestled with standardised dilemmas, expressed in 62 Academy of Management Review April the aptly titled article wrong Dichotomies EBM, Clinical Freedom and the Art of Medicine (Parker, 2005). managerial work itself differs from clinical work and other fields engaged in evidencebased practice in important ways. First, managerial decisions oftentimestimes involve long time lags and little feedback, as in the case of a recruiter hiring someone to eventually take over a senior agency in the firm. Years may pass before the true quality of that decision can be discerned, and, by then, the recruiter and others involved are likely to have move on (Jaques, 1976).Managerial decisions often are influenced by other stakeholders who impose constraints (Miller, 1992). Obtaining stakeholder support can involve politicking and compromise, altering the decision made, or even whether it is made at all. Incentives tied to managerial decisions are subject to contradictory shoves from senior executives, stockholders, customers, and employees. Last, its not incessantly obvious that a decision is being made, given the array of interactions that tranquilize managerial work (Walshe &038 Randall, 2001).A manager who declines to train a subordinate, for example, may not realize that particular act lastly may lead the employee to quit. Evidence-based management can be a tough sell to many managers, because management, in contrast to medicine or treat, is not a profession. Given the diverse backgrounds and education of managers, there is control u nderstanding of scientific method. With no officially mandated education or credentials (and even an MBA is no guarantee), practicing managers have no consistency of shared knowledge. missing shared scientific knowledge to add weight to an evidence-based decision, managers commonly rely on other bases (e. g. , experience, formal power, incentives, and threats) when making decisions acceptable to their superiors and constituents. Firms themselvesparticularly those in the private sector contribute to the limited treasure placed on science-based management practice. Although pharmaceutical firms advertise their investment in biotechnology and basic research, the typical business does not have the advancement of managerial knowledge in its mission.Historically leading corporations such as Cadbury, IBM, and worldwide Motors were actively engaged in research on company selec- tion and training practices, employee motivation, and supervisory behavior. Their efforts contributed comfor tably to the early managerial practice evidence base. only when few organizations today do their own managerial research or regularly collaborate with those who do, condescension the considerable benefits from industry-university collaborations (Cyert &038 Goodman, 1997) the globally experienced time comminute in managerial work and the press for short-term results have reduced such collaborations to dispensable frills.Nonetheless, hospitals participate in clinical research and school systems evaluate policy interventions. In contrast to more evidence-oriented domains, such as policing and education, management is to the highest degree often a private sector activity. It is less influenced by public policy pressures promoting similar practices while creating comparative advantage via distinctiveness. bloodlinees are characterized by the belief that the particulars of the organization, its practices, and its problems are fussy and uniquea widespread phenomenon termed the uniqu eness paradox (Martin, Feldman, Hatch, &038 Sitkin, 1983).Observed among clinical care givers and law enforcement practitioners too, the uniqueness paradox can interfere with transfer of research findings across settingsunless dispelled by bust education and experience with evidencebased practice (e. g. , Sackett et al. , 2000). Yet, despite all these factors, the most important reason evidence-based management is soundless a hope and not a reality is not due to managers themselves or their organizations. Rather, professors like me and the programs in which we larn must accept a large measure of blame. We typically do not ameliorate managers to know or use scientific evidence.Research evidence is not the of import focus of study for under tweak business students, MBAs, or executives in continuing education programs (Trank &038 Rynes, 2003), where case examples and popular concepts from nonresearch-oriented magazines such as the Harvard trading Review take center stage. Consist ent with the diminution of research in behavioral course work, business students and practicing managers have no ready access to research. No communities of experts vet research regarding effective management practice (in contrast to the collaboratives that vet health care, criminal justice, and educational research e. . , Campbell Collaboration, 2006 Rousseau 263 2005 Cochrane Collaboration, 2005). few MBAs encounter a peer-reviewed journal during their student days, let alone later. Consequently, its time to look critically at the role we educators play in limiting managers knowledge and use of research evidence. EVIDENCE-BASED MANAGEMENT AND OUR habit AS EDUCATORS My biggest surprise as the Academy president turned out to be the most frequent topic of emails sent to me by Academy members complaints about our journals from self-identified education-oriented members.A typical email goes like this I want to let you know what a waste the Academy journals are. thithers nothing in them at all pertinent to my training. The Academy should be for everybody, not just researchers. My first response was to feel guilty (why hadnt I seen this? ). But then I started to think more deeply about what this message implies. It says that educators arent finding ideas in journals that cause them to diverseness what they teach. This might mean that afoot(predicate) research is irrelevant to whats being taught if educators focus on other topics.It could mean that the contour of information research articles provide about principles or practices is insufficient to determine what settings or circumstances their findings apply to. Or it could even mean that professors arent updating their course material when research findings differ from what they teach. These emails prompted me to curio what exactly we are teaching. If we are teaching what research findings support, the content of a class has to transplant from time to time, with new evidence or collapse-specified theor y.The concern that prompted this address stem from these emails the role we educators play in the research-practice gap. How Professors apply to the Research work Gap Management education is itself often not evidence based, something Trank and Rynes implicitly actualise (2003) as the dumbing down of management education. They also persuasively demonstrated that, in place of evidence, behavioral courses in business schools focus on general skills (e. g. , team building, counterpoint man- agement) and authoritative case examples.Through these stimulating, evidently relevant activities, we capture student interest, helping to deflect the criticism How is this going to help me get my first job? business line schools reinforce this by relying heavily on student ratings instead of assessing real learning (Rynes, Trank, Lawson, &038 Ilies, 2003). Stimulating courses and active learning must be core features of training in evidence-based management, because these educational feature s are good pedagogy. The means and content of our approaches to behavioral courses perpetuate the research-practice gap. tripping Research-Education Connection Pick up any popular management textbook and you will find that Frederick Herzbergs work lives, but not Max webers. Herzbergs longdiscredited two-factor theory is typically allow ind in the motivation section of management textbooks, despite the fact that it was discredited as an artifact of method bias over thirty years ago (House &038 Wigdor, 1967). I asked a famous author of many best-selling(predicate) textbooks why this was so. Because professors like to teach Herzberg he answered. school-age childs want updated business examples but cant really tell if the research claims are valid. This conversation suggests that professors are likely to teach what they learned in receive school and not necessarily what contemporary research supports. (Since many management professors are adjuncts valued for their practical exper ience but are from diverse backgrounds, even educators of parallel professional age may not share scientific knowledge. ) I suspect that the persistence of Herzberg will continue until all the professors who learned the twofactor theory in graduate school (c. 960 1970) retire. However, business schools may dissuade inclusion of some well-substantiated topics because they dont honorable managerial. Paul Hirsch, the well-known sociologist, tells the flooring that when he flies business class, his seatmates ask what he does for a living. When he identifies himself as a business school professor, the next customary question is What do you teach? As a sociologist steeped in Weber and the century of research he spawned, Paul used to say, Bureaucracy. His seatmates frequently 264Academy of Management Review April moved to the opposite wing at that point, until Paul wised up and found a more appealing response Management (personal communication). Paul notes that managers solace need to understand bureaucratic processes, so he hasnt changed what he teaches only what he calls it. I do this too I no longer call socialization, training, and rules substitutes for lead (Kerr &038 Jermier, 1978), having found that the last thing a would-be manager wants to hear is how he or she can be replaced. The implications are clear.We frame, and perhaps even slant, what we teach to make it more palatable. Can it be we are on that slippery slope of avoiding teaching the most current social science findings relevant to managers and organizations, from downsizing to ethical decision making, because we fear our audience wont like the implications? Failure to Manage Student aspects Student expectations do drive course content, and current evidence indicates that there is a strong preference for turnkey, ready-to-use solutions to problems these students will face in their first jobs (Trank &038 Rynes, 2003).What efforts do we make to manage these expectations? Unless students are pe rsuaded to value sciencebased principles and their own role in turning these principles into sound organizational practice, it will be almost impossible for faculty to resist the pressure to teach only todays solutions. We might start by petition students who they think updates more effectivelypractitioners adept in solutions or in principles. trenchant practices in 2006 need not be the multifariousnessred as those in 2016, let alone 2036, when the major(ip)ity of todays business students will still be working(a)s.If we teach solutions to problems, such as how to gravel accurate information on a workers performance, students will acquire a toolperhaps, for example, 360-degree feedback. Yet they wont understand the underlying cognitive processes (whether feedback is task related or self-focused), social factors (the relationships between ratees and raters), and organizational mechanisms (used for developmental purposes or compensation decisions), which explain how, when, and why 360-degree feedback might work (or not).Imagine a doctor who knows to prescribe antibiotics to patients with bronchitis (a common recommendation in the 1980s before recognition of antibiotic overuse Franklin, 2005) but doesnt understand the basic physiology that can lead other therapies to be comparable, more effective, or have fewer downsides. In the case of feedback, basic social science research is quite a robust regarding how feedback impacts behavior (Kinicki &038 Kreitner, 2003). Such knowledge is likely to generate broader utility and more durable solutions over time than training in any particular feedback tool.Lack of Models for Evidence-Based Management Case methods are de rigueur in business schools, helping to develop students uninflected skills and familiarity with conditions they will face as practicing managers. The cases that I find most effective are those that have an individual manager as a protagonist (as opposed to those that describe an organization with out developing one or two fundamental personalities). A central character creates tension and evokes student naming with the events victorious place.That character is typically a manager, who can be the change operator responsible for solving the problem or a catalyst for the dysfunctional behavior on which the cases focuses. Either way, students have a computer simulationa positive or negative referentfrom which they can learn how to guide (or not) in the future. As with most complex behaviors, from parenting to managing, people learn part when they have competent models (Bandura, 1971). Nonetheless, in xxv years of using cases in class, I cannot recall a single time in which a protagonist reflected on research evidence in the course of his or her decision making.No Expectation for Updating Evidence-Based Knowledge Throughout the Managers Career Upon graduation, few business students recognize that the knowledge they may have acquired can be surpassed over time by new findi ngs. Although social science knowledge continues to expand, business school training does not prepare graduates to tap into it. uncomplete students nor managers have clear ideas of how to update their knowledge as new evidence emerges. 2006 Rousseau 265 there are few models of what an expert manager knows that a noviciate does not (see Hill, 1992, for an exception).In contrast, expert nurses are known to behave in very different ways from novices or less-than-expert midcareer nurses (Benner, 2001). They more rapidly surface up a situation accurately and deal simultaneously with more co-occurring factors. In the professions, extensive postgraduate development exists to deepen expertise to produce a higher quality of practice. In contrast, business schools often imply that MBAs know all they need to know when they graduate. WHAT WE CAN DO TO reason out THE RESEARCH-PRACTICE GAP There is a lot we can do to close the researchpractice gap, both as individual educators and through w orking incarnately.Manage Student Expectations We can manage student expectations with regard to the role of behavioral course work in the students broader career. I often introduce myself to full-time students by telling them that the easiest teaching I do has always been to executives, because these experienced managers come to the program convinced that human behavior and group processes are the most critical things they need to learn. At this point in their careers, our full-time students can only be novices whose expertise will grow with time and active effort on their part to understand the dynamics of behavior in organizations.Try asking students what the difference is between ten years of experience and one year of experience restate ten times. Then let them create mentally what ten years of experience in becoming more expert on behavior and group processes in organizations would look like (the types of job, people, settings, etc. ). Let them also imagine this for one yea r perennial ten times. Reflecting on these contrasting visions of their careers gives students an opportunity to raise their expectations of themselves as professional managers.There are various related means for managing expectations, including the creation of learning contracts based on the learners anticipated future roles, the behavioral knowledge and skills these roles will necessitate, and how that knowledge and skill will be acquired in the course (Goodman, 2005). It is easier to do this as part of a larger curriculum inclose by anticipated future rolesthe would-be-managers story (Schank, 2003). Important also is the next feature providing models of evidence-based practice and evidence-based managers.Provide Models of Evidence-Based Practice We need to model evidence-based practice in our teaching and in the curriculum. Psychological research on learning offers a usable guide for course/curriculum practices (e. g. , Kersting, 2005). These include exposing the learner to mo dels of competent evidence-based managers. I have been fortunate to encounter such a person. John Zanardelli is the CEO of Asbury Heights, the Methodist foot for the Aged, Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania. I first met John in an executive course on change management at Carnegie Mellon.He peppered me with questions about skills, information, and management tactics and wanted to know the research support behind my answers. adroit as an epidemiologist, John understands the scientific method and regularly looks for scientific corroboration of ideas he comes across in popular management books and from self-proclaimed experts. (Not surprisingly, the calls for evidence-based management largely have come from health care professionals and scholars e. g. , DeAngelis, 2005 Kovner, Elton, &038 Billings, 2005. I knew that I was seeing an unusual manager, to say the least, when John, set about with the need to redesign his organizations compensation practices, went off to the Carnegie Mellon library to read J. Stacy Adams legality theory His organizations vision statement is built nigh the concept Where Loving Care and acquirement Come Together. Managers such as John Zanardelli provide exemplars of the complex set of proficiencies unavoidable to become a master management practitioner. Using them as examples reinforces the notion that the typical twenty-something student is a novice taking first steps along the room to becoming an expert (e. . , Benner, 2001 Hill, 1992). Active practice, self-reflection, and feedback are core learning principles (Schon, 1983). ? create student competence through active practice entails project work supported by ongoing reflection and debriefing regarding what constitutes valid learning and effective behavior. Similarly, our educational practices, 266 Academy of Management Review April courses, and curricula need that same reflection and evolution to effectively model evidencebased teaching. Promote Active Use of Evidence Students need t o know that evidence is available, and they need to learn how to apply it.This necessitates a residuum between teaching principlesthat is, cause-effect knowledgeand practicesthat is, solutions to organizational problemsthough the mix is subject to feud (Bennis &038 OToole, 2005). In the spirit of making the course tell a story students can understand and participate in, a course conveying how a novice becomes an expert manager, like any good story, involves a succession of experiences, trials, failures, and successes (Schank, 2003). That story line is marked by the acquisition of clearly different kinds of knowledge.There is declarative knowledge regarding principles or cause-effect relationships. Students can acquire principles in a variety of ways. They might address the appropriateness of group incentives versus individual incentives by locating evidence in a textbook, in journals, or online. Informing students of the evidence through lectures and books has its place, but there is value in identifying and deriving the principles themselves from the sources that will uphold available to them throughout their careers.Students can learn a good deal from actively accessing evidence, using it to solve problems, reflectingand trying again. Indeed, one of the most powerful forms of learning may be deriving principles from experience and reflection, as when students review cases and then derive the principles placeing the underlying outcomes (Thompson, Gentner, &038 Loewenstein, 2003). Thompson and her colleagues found that students learned better when they developed principles from cases than when they derived solutions, a finding consistent with basic psychological research on learning (Anderson, Fincham, &038 Douglass, 1997).Actually using evidence takes a metaskill the ability to turn evidence-based principles into solutions. A form of procedural knowledge, a solution-oriented approach to evidence use is comparable to product design, where end users and kno wledgeable others familiar with the situation in which the product will be used jointly participate in specifying its features and functionality. Perhaps one of the first products of behavioral research in organizations was the revolving pergola restaurants use to convey customer orders to the kitchen.William Foote Whyte (1948) discovered that status differences between restaurent wait staff (typically female) and the (male) chef led to conflicts, because chefs disliked taking orders from women. The revolving order spindle to which waitresses could attach an order and spin it in the direction of the kitchen allowed customer orders to be conveyed impersonally, reducing workplace conflict and improving communication. Other researchbased products include decision supports such as checklists to guide a performance review or action plans to conduct meetings in ways that build consensus (e. . , Mohrman &038 Mohrman, 1997), effectively translating the evidence into guides for action. Buil d Collaborations Among Managers, Researchers, and Educators As the saying goes, it takes a village to educate people. Changing how we educate managers in professional schools necessitates a collective attitude and behavior shift among educators, researchers, current managers, and recruiters. Pfeffer and Suttons (in press) book calls attention to managerial heroespeople who use evidence to turn troubled companies around and/or to create sustained successes.As in the case of any change in collective attitudes (Gladwell, 2002), turning evidence-based management from a practice of a prophetic few into the mainstream requires champions credible people like Pfeffer and Suttons managerial heroesto advertise its value. Networks of individuals, excited by what evidence-based management makes possible, need to exist to disseminate it to others. peerless such collaborative network might parallel the Cochrane Collaboration in medicine and the Campbell Collaboration in criminal justice and edu cation. Such a community has been advocated to promote evidenced-based management of health care organizations Kovner et al. , 2005, suggesting that communities of experts might effectively be built around the management of specific kinds of organizations. ) Each represents a worldwide community of experts created to provide ready access to a particular 2006 Rousseau 267 body of evidence and the practices it supports. Community members, practitioners as well as researchers, collaborate in summarizing stateof-the-art knowledge on practices known to be important. breeding is presented in sufficient detail regarding evidence and sources of outcome variation to reduce underuse, overuse, and misuse. season these communities are geographically distributed, they also sponsor face-to-face meetings to promote community building, commitment, and learning. Their major product is online access to information, designed for easy use. EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE CAN BE misunderstand On a cautionary note, the notice evidencebased practice can be misapplied. It can be used to characterize ostensible practices (another companys so-called best practice or the latest tool consultants are selling).Alternatively, it can be used as a club (the kind with a nail in it) to force compliance with a standard that may not be universally applicable. whiz downside of poor implementation of evidence-based medicine is the dispute the British health care system has faced owing to the use of the Cochrane Collaborations recommendations to regulate clinical care decisions, with enforcement of the recommendations regardless of their suitability for particular patients (Eysenbach &038 Kummervold, 2005). Evidence-based practice is not onesize-fits-all its the best current evidence coupled with informed expert judgment.OUR OWN ZEITGEIST PROMOTING EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT twoscore years elapsed between Semmelweiss discoveries and the formulation of germ theory. One degree centigrade ye ars later, even basic infectionreducing practices such as hand washing still are not consistently performed in hospitals (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2004). Considering the personal growth and social and organizational changes evidence-based practice requires, our own evidence-based management zeitgeist still has plenty of time to run. The first challenge is consciousness raising regarding the rich array of evidence that can improve forte of managerial decisions.Educating opinion leaders, including prominent executives and educators, in the nature and value of evidence-based approaches builds champions who can get the word out. Updating management education with the latest research must be ongoing, demanding that educators and textbook writers apprise themselves of new research findings. The onus is on researchers to make generalizability clearer by providing better information in their reports regarding the mise en scene in which their findings were observed. All parties need to put greater emphasis on learning how to translate research findings into solutions.In the case of researchers, too much information that might affect the translations of findings to practice remains tacit, in the apparent minutiae research reports omit, known only to the researcher. Educators need to help students acquire the metaskills for blueprint solutions around the research principles they teach. Managers must learn how to experiment with possible evidence-based solutions and to adapt them to particular settings. We need knowledgesharing networks composed of educators, researchers, and manager/practitioners to help create and disseminate management-oriented research summaries and practices that best evidence supports.Building a culture in which managers learn to learn from evidence is a critical aspect of effective evidence use (Pfeffer &038 Sutton, in press). Developing managerial competence historically has been viewed as a training issue, underestimating the investment in coll ective capabilities that is needed (Mohrman, Gibson, &038 Mohrman, 2001). The promises of evidence-based management are manifold. It affords higher-quality managerial decisions that are better implemented, and it yields outcomes more in line with organizational goals.Those who use evidence (E and e) and learn to use it well have comparative advantage over their less competent counterparts. Managers, educators, and researchers can learn more systematically throughout their careers regarding principles that govern human behavior and organizational actions and the solutions that intensify contemporary organizational performance and member experience. A focus on evidence use may also ultimately help to blur the boundaries between researchers, educators, and managers, creating a lively community with many feedback loops where information is sys- 268 Academy of Management ReviewApril tematically gathered, evaluated, disseminated, implemented, reevaluated, and shared. The promise of evide nce-based management contrasts with the staying power or stickiness of the status quo. Like the QWERTY keyboard created for manual typewriters, but ineffectual in the age of word processing, management-asusual survives, despite being out of step with contemporary needs. Failure to evolve toward evidence-based management, however, is costlier than mere inefficiency. It deprives organizations, their members, our students, and the general public of greater success and better managers.Please join with me in working to make evidence-based management a reality. REFERENCES Anderson, J. R. , Fincham, J. M. , &038 Douglass, S. 1997. 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